-able to play stronger French against the British, which gives him more independence

-no Muhammad Ali means Saudis last longer

-takes harder pitched campaign from Ottomans into 1820s to stop him

-Oman as a territory massively weakened, Gulf designs now much less well developed

-post-Saudi, fails to be able to regain stature in Gulf

-means Oman forced to move to Zanzibar earlier (in 1832)

-also means less confident to stop piracy and British being in period of instability (British Wars > Popular Revolution (1827-9)) means they're much less able to intervene, which means that also lasts longer

-successfully accedes to Sakalava fears of being conquered by Merina, making it a protectorate in 1830s and facing off an invasion

-Sakalava manpower important in program of interior expansion (for slave trade and plantation cultivation)

-engages in invasions along coast, securing coast from (not incl) Mozambique to Somalia under his hands

-erects outposts well into the interior

-crushes rebellious Mombasa

-signs treaty, beyond France and British Isles, with the United States

-prospers from highly lucrative clove trade, also Zanzibar has massive slave markets

-expands Zanzibar's holdings to Great Lakes

-successfully stamps authority in the middle areas and all but not without challenges

-in particular, chaos due to Ngoni invasion in Lake Malawi allows Omani to sweep in with superior arms

-lots of clients, filibusters under his overlordship

-successfully secures Yao kingdoms in particular through trade ties and the like

-also rise of client state in eastern Congo basin

-this expansion results in spread of trade and even guns into interior

-builds railways in this era

-oriented towards exports almost exclusively

-facilitates growth of cash crop trade (w/ slave plantations)

-attempts to grow coffee fail due to coffee rust

-reaps benefit of Liberty and Union War (1868-76) constricting American cotton by developing cotton plantations

-likewise with tobacco, food

-from rice plantations of the Congo basin to commercial node of Tabora to Dar as Salaam, then by ferry to Zanzibar

-factories for making guns, w/ slaves constructed

-sees International Interventions > First Intervention in Zanzibar (1904) against slave trade, and faced with an International Force, Ali reluctantly signs law banning slave trade to and from mainland Africa (and between major settlements)

-ends vast Zanzibari markets, but doesn't stop technically-illicit human trafficking which authorities do not suppress at all

-and when it's clear this isn't stopping slave trade or slavery, not enough international support to force him to stop after he renews commercial treaties

-with Spain's Wars > Spanish Revolution (1912-24) and takeover of Portugal decides to invade Mozambique

-succeeds and takes the strip up to Angoche

-including Island of Mozambique

-however defeated by Kingdom of Zambesia

-sees International Interventions > Second Intervention in Zanzibar (1927)

-formally arrested and submitted to International Tribunal by international force

-forced to issue emancipation decree

-but he undercuts it by only authorizing the freeing of slaves who petition for it in court

-slave lords get around this by barring slaves from going to courtrooms

-but nevertheless expands freedmen class

-also signs treaty allowing foreign influence

-deciding to centralize to avoid his state disintegrating, establishes permanent assembly of landlords and representatives to serve as a parliament in 1929

-it undercuts emancipation of slavery even more because they block his measures

-attempts of freedmen parties to enter the parliament largely fail

-they get stitched up as the People's Liberation Association (Chama cha Ukombozi wa Watu; Chaukwatu) in 1936

-but do have a small victory and they establish a delegation into there

-they are largely despised, incl. by representatives of the sultan, who call them extremely bad insults

-modernization attempts go badly, attempts at modern industry-building largely fail

-in 1964, Chaukwatu cells across the country rebel, and in Stone Town itself

-massive army mutinies

-Khalifa captured when his ships are destroyed before he can get aboard

-kept in custody, given trial following legal forms and executed

-body dumped into the sea

-as a deliberate insult, body thrown in direction opposite to Mecca

-issues Declaration of Principles (1964), which defines grievances and calls for egalitarian republicanism, and also explicitly cites American Declaration of Independence and French Declaration of Rights of Man

1970-1: ran unopposed

1976 def. (Chama cha Wafanyakazi na Wakulima; CWW)

-Simba being name he adopted as revolutionary

-sees campaigns in east through

-issues amnesties and other such laws and actively prevents reprisals

-does not always succeed though

-but does succeed in limiting mass emigration, even gets considered positively by some of them postwar

-and Constituent Assembly under his overlordship writes constitution, v. similar to the US's

-albeit with midterms after 3 years and president 6 year terms (lim. to 2)

-finally forces the declared Sultan to flee the country, declares victory

-having already assembled constituent assembly, brings in eastern representatives, which means the already-written constitution can be ratified into law

-election sees unanimous victory